Multifaceted Roles of Trichoderma in Sustainable Agriculture: Mechanisms, Applications, and Future Perspectives
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.56946/jspae.v5i2.881Keywords:
Biocontrol, Biofertilizer, Plant Growth Promotion, Soil Microbiome Interactions, Sustainable AgricultureAbstract
Modern agricultural practices have boosted crop yields but have also intensified pressure on the food system, along with environmental and health issues linked to overreliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Soil degradation, loss of biodiversity, pesticide resistance, pollution, and human health hazards are the serious negative consequences imposed due to intensive agricultural practices, necessitating the shift towards biological agents to boost productivity and safeguard environmental and human health. Beneficial organisms, especially Trichoderma species, have emerged as effective beneficial fungi due to their versatile roles in sustainable agriculture for disease suppression through mycoparasitism, competition, production of secondary metabolites, and entomopathogenesis. In addition to pathogen suppression, Trichoderma spp. induce defence mechanisms in plants, produce growth hormones, mobilize unavailable nutrients, and increase nutrient uptake, making plants tolerant to biotic and abiotic stress and facilitating the bioremediation of toxic soil. However, problems related to strain specificity, field performance, environmental conditions and shelf-life stability limit its widespread adoption. Future studies should focus on producing stress-tolorent and highly efficient strains, Trichoderma strains that can tolerate broader environmental conditions, exploring synergetic effects with other beneficial micro-organisms, and application methods. Overall, this review presents the versatile function of Trichoderma spp. in increasing crop yield and preventing negative consequences on environmental and human health, and also highlights challenges and the need for advance future studies.
References
1. Papavizas GC. Trichoderma and Gliocladium: biology, ecology, and potential for biocontrol. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 1985;23(1):23–54. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.py.23.090185.000323
2. Tian M, Zheng Y, Sun X, Zheng H. A research on promoting chemical fertiliser reduction for sustainable agriculture purposes: Evolutionary game analyses involving ‘government, farmers, and consumers.’ Ecological Indicators, 2022;144:109433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109433
3. Zanfaño L, Carro-Huerga G, Rodríguez-González Á, Ramírez-Lozano D, Mayo-Prieto S, Gutiérrez S, et al. Biosolutions from Native Trichoderma Strains Against Grapevine Trunk Diseases. Vol. 15, Agronomy. 2025. p. 1901. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081901
4. Chou C, Castilla N, Hadi B, Tanaka T, Chiba S, Sato I. Rice blast management in Cambodian rice fields using Trichoderma harzianum and a resistant variety. Crop Protection. 2020;135:104864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2019.104864
5. Tilman D, Cassman K, Matson P, Naylor R, Polasky S. review article Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature. 2002 Aug 8;418:671–7.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01014
6. Ayeni O, Olagoke-Komolafe O. Environmental impact of modern agricultural practices: Strategies for reducing carbon footprint and promoting conservation. International Journal of Management & Entrepreneurship Research, 2024 Sep 23;6:3082–95. https://doi.org/10.51594/ijmer.v6i9.1581
7. Shuqin J, Fang Z. Zero Growth of Chemical Fertilizer and Pesticide Use: China’s Objectives, Progress and Challenges. J Resour Ecol []. 2018 Jan 1;9(1):50–8. https://doi.org/10.5814/j.issn.1674-764x.2018.01.006
8. Deising HB, Reimann S, Peil A, Weber WE. Disease Management of Rusts and Powdery Mildews BT - Agricultural Applications. In: Kempken F, editor. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2002. p. 243–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-03059-2_13
9. Joo JH, Hussein KA. Biological control and plant growth promotion properties of volatile organic compound-producing antagonistic Trichoderma spp. Frontiers in Plant Science, 2022;13:897668. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.897668
10. Gohel NM, Raghunandan BL, Patel NB, Parmar H V, Raval DB. Role of Fungal Biocontrol Agents for Sustainable Agriculture. Fungal diversity, ecology and control management []. Springer; 2022. p. 577–606. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8877-5_28
11. Fenibo EO, Ijoma GN, Matambo T. Biopesticides in Sustainable Agriculture: A Critical Sustainable Development Driver Governed by Green Chemistry Principles. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 2021;5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.619058
12. Abirami S, Gayathri SS, Usha C. Trichoderma as biostimulant-a plausible approach to alleviate abiotic stress for intensive production practices. New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Elsevier; 2022. p. 57–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85577-8.00004-4
13. Mukherjee PK, Horwitz BA, Singh US, Mala Mukherjee MM, Schmoll M. Trichoderma in agriculture, industry and medicine: an overview. CABI. 2013;1–9. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781780642475.0001
14. Pacheco-Trejo J, Aquino-Torres E, Reyes-Santamaría MI, Islas-Pelcastre M, Pérez-Ríos SR, Madariaga-Navarrete A, et al. Plant Defensive Responses Triggered by Trichoderma spp. as Tools to Face Stressful Conditions. Vol. 8, Horticulturae. 2022. p. 1181. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8121181
15. Brotman Y, Landau U, Cuadros-Inostroza A, Takayuki T, Fernie AR, Chet I, et al. Trichoderma-plant root colonization: escaping early plant defense responses and activation of the antioxidant machinery for saline stress tolerance. PLoS Pathogens. 2013;9(3):e1003221. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003221
16. López-Bucio J, Pelagio-Flores R, Herrera-Estrella A. Trichoderma as biostimulant: exploiting the multilevel properties of a plant beneficial fungus. Scientia Horticulturae, (Amsterdam). 2015;196:109–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2015.08.043
17. Kubheka B, Ziena L. Trichoderma : A Biofertilizer and a Bio-Fungicide for Sustainable Crop Production. Trichoderma. 2022. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102405
18. Yao X, Guo H, Zhang K, Zhao M, Ruan J, Chen J. Trichoderma and its role in biological control of plant fungal and nematode disease. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2023;14:1160551. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1160551
19. Guzmán-Guzmán P, Kumar A, de los Santos-Villalobos S, Parra-Cota FI, Orozco-Mosqueda MD, Fadiji AE, et al. Trichoderma Species: Our Best Fungal Allies in the Biocontrol of Plant Diseases—A Review. Vol. 12, Plants. 2023. p. 432. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12030432
20. Chaverri P, Castlebury LA, Overton BE, Samuels GJ. Hypocrea/Trichoderma: species with conidiophore elongations and green conidia. Mycologia. 2003 Nov 1;95(6):1100–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/15572536.2004.11833023
21. Cai F, Druzhinina IS. In honor of John Bissett: authoritative guidelines on molecular identification of Trichoderma. Fungal Diversity. 2021;107(1):1–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13225-020-00464-4
22. Druzhinina IS, Kubicek CP, Komoń-Zelazowska M, Mulaw TB, Bissett J. The Trichoderma harzianum demon: complex speciation history resulting in coexistence of hypothetical biological species, recent agamospecies and numerous relict lineages. BMC Evolutionary Biology. 2010;10(1):94. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-10-94
23. Zhao R, Chen K, Mao L, Zhang C. Eleven new species of Trichoderma ( Hypocreaceae , Hypocreales ) from China. International journal of fungal Mycology. 2025;16(1):180–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/21501203.2024.2330400
24. Athafah A, Sabah I, Alamer A, Li B, Zhang J. A new species of Trichoderma and gliotoxin role : A new observation in enhancing biocontrol potential of T . virens against Phytophthora capsici on chili pepper. Biological Control. 2020;145(July 2019):104261.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2020.104261
25. Boukaew S, Chumkaew K, Petlamul W, Srinuanpan S, Nooprom K, Zhang Z. Biocontrol effectiveness of Trichoderma asperelloides SKRU-01 and Trichoderma asperellum NST-009 on postharvest anthracnose in chili pepper. Food Control. 2024;163:110490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2024.110490
26. Ghareeb RY, Belal EB, Khateeb NMM El, Shreef BA. Utilizing bio ‑ synthesis of nanomaterials as biological agents for controlling soil ‑ borne diseases in pepper plants : root ‑ knot nematodes and root rot fungus. BMC Plant Biology. 2024;1–22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-04760-y
27. Pacheco JC, Poltronieri AS, Porsani M V, Zawadneak MAC, Pimentel IC. Entomopathogenic potential of fungi isolated from intertidal environments against the cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicae (Hemiptera: aphididae). Biocontrol Science and Technology. 2017 Apr 3;27(4):496–509. https://doi.org/10.1080/09583157.2017.1315053
28. Rahim S, Iqbal M. Exploring Enhanced Insecticidal Activity of Mycelial Extract of Trichoderma harzianum against Diuraphis noxia and Tribolium castaneum. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture. 2019;35(3). https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2019/35.3.757.762
29. Woo SL, Ruocco M, Vinale F, Nigro M, Marra R, Lombardi N, et al. Trichoderma-based products and their widespread use in agriculture. The Open Mycology Journal 2014;8(1):71–126. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874437001408010071
30. Abo-Elyousr KAM, Abdel-Hafez SII, Abdel-Rahim IR. Isolation of Trichoderma and Evaluation of their Antagonistic Potential against Alternaria porri. Journal of Phytopathology. 2014 Sep 1;162(9):567–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/jph.12228
31. Howell CR. Mechanisms employed by Trichoderma species in the biological control of plant diseases: the history and evolution of current concepts. Plant Disease. 2003;87(1):4–10. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.2003.87.1.4
32. Rey M, Delgado-Jarana J, Benitez T. Improved antifungal activity of a mutant of Trichoderma harzianum CECT 2413 which produces more extracellular proteins. Appllied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2001;55(5):604–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002530000551
33. Matrood AAA, Rhouma A. Environmental factors affecting Trichoderma spp . and their biocontrol potential in post - harvest disease management. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science. 2025;10(2):285–91. https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2025.1002014
34. Al-Ani LKT. Trichoderma from Extreme Environments: Physiology, Diversity, and Antagonistic Activity BT - Extremophiles in Eurasian Ecosystems: Ecology, Diversity, and Applications. In: Egamberdieva D, Birkeland N-K, Panosyan H, Li W-J, editors. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2018. p. 389–403. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0329-6_14
35. Singh S, Singh AK, Pradhan B, Tripathi S, Kumar KS, Chand S, et al. Harnessing Trichoderma Mycoparasitism as a Tool in the Management of Soil Dwelling Plant Pathogens. Microbial Ecology. 2024;87(1):158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-024-02472-2
36. Contreras-Cornejo HA, Macías-Rodríguez L, del-Val E, Larsen J. Ecological functions of Trichoderma spp. and their secondary metabolites in the rhizosphere: interactions with plants. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 2016 Apr;92(4):fiw036. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiw036
37. Asghar W, Craven KD, Kataoka R, Mahmood A, Asghar N, Raza T, et al. The application of Trichoderma spp., an old but new useful fungus, in sustainable soil health intensification: A comprehensive strategy for addressing challenges. Plant Stress. 2024;12:100455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stress.2024.100455
38. Vindas-reyes E, Chac R, Rivera-m W, Box CPO, Rica C, Box CPO, et al. Trichoderma Production and Encapsulation Methods for Agricultural Applications. Agriengineering. 2024;6(3):2366–84. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering6030138
39. Howell CR. Mechanisms employed by Trichoderma species in the biological control of plant diseases: The history and evolution of current concepts. Plant Disease. 2003;87(1):4–10.https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.2003.87.1.4
40. Köhl J, Kolnaar R, Ravensberg WJ. Mode of action of microbial biological control agents against plant diseases: relevance beyond efficacy. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2019;10:845. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00845
41. Stracquadanio C, Quiles JM, Meca G, Cacciola SO. Antifungal Activity of Bioactive Metabolites Produced by Trichoderma asperellum and Trichoderma atroviride in Liquid Medium. Vol. 6, Journal of Fungi. 2020. p. 263. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6040263
42. Crowley DE. Microbial Siderophores in the Plant Rhizosphere BT - Iron Nutrition in Plants and Rhizospheric Microorganisms. Barton LL, Abadia J, editors. Iron Nutrition in Plants and Rhizospheric Microorganisms. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands; 2006. p. 169–98. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-4743-6_8
43. Benítez T, Rincón A, Limón MC, Codón A. Biocontrol mechanism of Trichoderma strains. International Microbiology : The Official Journal of the Spanish Society for Microbiology. 2005 Jan 1;7:249–60.
44. Oszust K, Cybulska J, Frąc M. How Do Trichoderma Genus Fungi Win a Nutritional Competition Battle against Soft Fruit Pathogens? A Report on Niche Overlap Nutritional Potentiates. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020 Jun; 21(12): 4235. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21124235
45. Wang C, Zhuang W-Y. Carbon metabolic profiling of Trichoderma strains provides insight into potential ecological niches. Mycologia. 2020 Mar 3;112(2):213–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.2019.1698246
46. Silva RN, Monteiro VN, Steindorff AS, Gomes EV, Noronha EF, Ulhoa CJ. Trichoderma/pathogen/plant interaction in pre-harvest food security. Fungal Biology. 2019;123(8):565–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2019.06.010
47. Poveda J. Trichoderma as biocontrol agent against pests: New uses for a mycoparasite. Biological Control. 2021;159:104634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2021.104634
48. Tyśkiewicz R, Nowak A, Ozimek E, Jaroszuk-Ściseł J. Trichoderma: The current status of its application in agriculture for the biocontrol of fungal phytopathogens and stimulation of plant growth. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2022; 23(4): 2329. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23042329
49. Oyesola OL, Tonjock RK, Bello OA, Taiwo OS, Obembe OO. Trichoderma: a review of its mechanisms of action in plant disease control [preprint]. Preprints.org. 2024 May 21. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202405.1378.v1
50. Laib DE, Benzara A, Akkal S, Bensouici C. The anti-acetylcholinesterase, insecticidal and antifungal activities of the entophytic fungus Trichoderma sp. isolated from Ricinus communis L. against Locusta migratoria L. and Botrytis cinerea Pers.: Fr. Acta Scientifica Naturalis. 2020;7(1):112–25. https://doi.org/10.2478/asn-2020-0011
51. Macías-Rodríguez L, Guzmán-Gómez A, García-Juárez P, Contreras-Cornejo HA. Trichoderma atroviride promotes tomato development and alters the root exudation of carbohydrates, which stimulates fungal growth and the biocontrol of the phytopathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi in a tripartite interaction system. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 2018 Sep 1; 94(9): fiy137. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiy137
52. Coninck E, Scauflaire J, Gollier M, Liénard C, Foucart G, Manssens G, et al. Trichoderma atroviride as a promising biocontrol agent in seed coating for reducing Fusarium damping‐off on maize. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2020 Sep 1;129(3):637–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/jam.14641
53. Zhang F, Chen C, Zhang F, Gao L, Liu J, Chen L, et al. Trichoderma harzianum containing 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase and chitinase improved growth and diminished adverse effect caused by Fusarium oxysporum in soybean. Journal of Plant Physiology. 2017; 210:84–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2016.10.012
54. Singh V, Kumar B. A review of agricultural microbial inoculants and their carriers in bioformulation. Rhizosphere. 2024;29:100843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhisph.2023.100843
55. Moo-Koh FA, Cristóbal-Alejo J, Andrés MF, Martín J, Reyes F, Tun-Suárez JM, et al. In Vitro Assessment of Organic and Residual Fractions of Nematicidal Culture Filtrates from Thirteen Tropical Trichoderma Strains and Metabolic Profiles of Most-Active. Vol. 8, Journal of Fungi. 2022. p. 82. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8010082
56. Coppola M, Cascone P, Lelio I Di, Woo SL, Lorito M, Rao R, et al. Trichoderma atroviride P1 Colonization of Tomato Plants Enhances Both Direct and Indirect Defense Barriers Against Insects. Frontiers in Physiology. 2019;Volume 10-2019. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00813
57. Mukherjee A, Debnath P, Ghosh SK, Medda PK. Biological control of papaya aphid (Aphis gossypii Glover) using entomopathogenic fungi. International Journal of Plant Research. 2020;33(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42535-019-00072-x
58. Islam MS, Subbiah VK, Siddiquee S. Efficacy of Entomopathogenic Trichoderma Isolates against Sugarcane Woolly Aphid, Ceratovacuna lanigera Zehntner (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Vol. 8, Horticulturae. 2022. p. 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8010002
59. Banduwardena AVRC, Mendis BAN. Evaluation of mycoparasitic Trichoderma atroviride and entomopathogenic Aspergillus niger as potential bioinsecticides against the dengue vector , Aedes aegypti. 2025;(April):1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2025.1502579
60. Lana M, Simón O, Velasco P, Rodríguez VM, Caballero P, Poveda J. First study on the root endophytic fungus Trichoderma hamatum as an entomopathogen: Development of a fungal bioinsecticide against cotton leafworm (Spodoptera littoralis). Microbiological Research. 2023 May;270:127334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2023.127334
61. Kushiyev R, Tuncer C, Erper I, Özer G. The utility of Trichoderma spp . isolates to control of Xylosandrus germanus Blandford ( Coleoptera : Curculionidae : Scolytinae ). Journal of Plant Disease and Protection. 2020; (0123456789). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41348-020-00375-1
62. Elsherbiny EA, Amin BH, Aleem B, Kingsley KL, Bennett JW. Trichoderma Volatile Organic Compounds as a Biofumigation Tool against Late Blight Pathogen Phytophthora infestans in Postharvest Potato Tubers. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2020 Aug 5; 68 (31): 8163–71.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.0c03150
63. Al-Hazmi AS, TariqJaveed M. Effects of different inoculum densities of Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride against Meloidogyne javanica on tomato. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 2016; 23(2): 288–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2015.04.007
64. Pocurull M, Fullana AM, Ferro M, Valero P, Escudero N, Saus E, et al. Commercial formulates of Trichoderma induce systemic plant resistance to Meloidogyne incognita in tomato and the effect is additive to that of the Mi-1.2 resistance gene. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2020; 10:3042. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.03042
65. Aljbory Z, Chen M-S. Indirect plant defense against insect herbivores: a review. Insect Science. 2018 Feb;25(1):2–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7917.12436
66. Juan CA, Pérez de la Lastra JM, Plou FJ, Pérez-Lebeña E. The Chemistry of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Revisited: Outlining Their Role in Biological Macromolecules (DNA, Lipids and Proteins) and Induced Pathologies. Vol. 22, International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021. p. 4642.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22094642
67. Saldajeno MGB, Naznin HA, Elsharkawy MM, Shimizu M, Hyakumachi M. Chapter 35 - Enhanced Resistance of Plants to Disease Using Trichoderma spp. Gupta VK, Schmoll M, Herrera-Estrella A, Upadhyay RS, Druzhinina I, Tuohy MGBT-B and B of T, editors. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2014. p. 477–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59576-8.00035-7
68. Perazzolli M, Dagostin S, Ferrari A, Elad Y, Pertot I. Induction of systemic resistance against Plasmopara viticola in grapevine by Trichoderma harzianum T39 and benzothiadiazole. Biological Control. 2008; 47(2):228–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2008.08.008
69. Perazzolli M, Roatti B, Bozza E, Pertot I. Trichoderma harzianum T39 induces resistance against downy mildew by priming for defense without costs for grapevine. Biological Control. 2011;58(1):74–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2011.04.006
70. Yedidia I, Benhamou N, Chet I. Induction of defense responses in cucumber plants (Cucumis sativus L.) by the Biocontrol agent Trichoderma harzianum. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1999;65(3):1061–70.
https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.65.3.1061-1070.1999
71. Khaleil M, El-Mougith A, Hashem H, Lokma N. Biocontrol potential of entomopathogenic fungus, Trichoderma hamatum against the cotton aphid, Aphis Gossypii. Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology. 2016;10(5):11–20. https://doi.org/10.9790/2402-105021120
72. Binod P, Sukumaran RK, Shirke S V, Rajput JC, Pandey A. Evaluation of fungal culture filtrate containing chitinase as a biocontrol agent against Helicoverpa armigera. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2007 Nov 1;103(5):1845–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03428.x
73. Ibrahim D, Elderiny M, Ansari R, Rizvi R, Sumbul A, Mahmood I. Role of Trichoderma spp. in the Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes Infesting Important Crops. Management of Phytonematodes: Recent Advances and Future Challenges. 2020. p. 259–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4087-5_11
74. Ding H, Li X, Wang S, Yang Y, Chen X, Chen C, et al. Trichoderma harzianum for the control of agricultural pests: Potential, progress, applications and future prospects. Revista Argentina de Microbiología. 2026;58(1):101–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ram.2025.09.004
75. Oliveira CM, Oshiquiri LH, Almeida NO, Steindorf AS, da Rocha MR, Georg RC, et al. Trichoderma harzianum transcriptome in response to the nematode Pratylenchus brachyurus. Biological Control. 2023;183:105245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2023.105245
76. Oliveira C, Almeida N, De Carvalho Barros Côrtes MV, Lobo Junior M, Rocha M, Ulhoa C. Biological control of Pratylenchus brachyurus with isolates of Trichoderma spp. on soybean. Biological Control. 2020 Sep 1;152:104425.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2020.104425
77. Macías-Rodríguez L, Contreras-Cornejo HA, Adame-Garnica SG, Del-Val E, Larsen J. The interactions of Trichoderma at multiple trophic levels: inter-kingdom communication. Microbiological Research. 2020;240:126552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2020.126552
78. Contreras-Cornejo HA, Macías-Rodríguez L, Cortés-Penagos C, López-Bucio J. Trichoderma virens, a Plant Beneficial Fungus, Enhances Biomass Production and Promotes Lateral Root Growth through an Auxin-Dependent Mechanism in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiology. 2009 Mar 1;149(3):1579–92. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.108.130369
79. Bazghaleh N, Prashar P, Woo S, Vandenberg A. Effects of lentil genotype on the colonization of beneficial Trichoderma Species and biocontrol of Aphanomyces Root Rot. Vol. 8, Microorganisms. 2020. p. 1290. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8091290
80. Nuangmek W, Aiduang W, Kumla J, Lumyong S, Suwannarach N. Evaluation of a newly identified endophytic fungus, Trichoderma phayaoense for plant growth promotion and biological control of gummy stem blight and wilt of muskmelon. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2021;12:634772. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.634772
81. Björkman T, Blanchard LM, Harman GE. Growth enhancement of shrunken-2 (sh2) sweet corn by Trichoderma harzianum 1295-22: Effect of environmental stress. Vol. 123, Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 1998. p. 35–40. https://doi.org/10.21273/jashs.123.1.35
82. Contreras A. Ecological functions of Trichoderma spp. and their secondary metabolites in the rhizosphere: Interactions with plants. FEMS microbiology ecology 2016; 92(4). https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiw036
83. Zhang F, Huo Y, Cobb AB, Luo G, Zhou J, Yang G, et al. Trichoderma biofertilizer links to altered soil chemistry, altered microbial communities, and improved grassland biomass. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2018;9(APR):1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.00848
84. Harman GE. Myths and Dogmas of Biocontrol Changes in Perceptions Derived from Research on Trichoderma harzinum T-22. Plant Disease. 2000 Apr 1;84(4):377–93. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS.2000.84.4.377
85. Strong J, Burgess J. Treatment Methods for Wine-Related and Distillery Wastewaters: A Review. Bioremediation Journal. 2008 May 22;12(1):70–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/10889860802060063
86. Shakshi, Singh S. ., Haritash A. Environmental Biotechnology for control of environmetal pollution. International Journal of Advanced Research 2018;6(11):816–9. https://doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/8064
87. Bandurska K, Krupa P, Berdowska A, Jatulewicz I, Zawierucha I. Mycoremediation of soil contaminated with cadmium and lead by Trichoderma sp. Ecological Chemistry and Engineering. 2021;28(2):277–86. https://doi.org/10.2478/eces-2021-0020
88. Kumar M, Fatehpuria PK, Ahmad SK, Jamil A, Dhakar N. Application of Trichoderma spp. Restoration in Soil Health. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 2020;9(2):3051–8. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.902.351
89. Nykiel-Szymańska J, Bernat P, Słaba M. Biotransformation and detoxification of chloroacetanilide herbicides by Trichoderma spp. with plant growth-promoting activities. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. 2020;163:216–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pestbp.2019.11.018
90. Bae H, Sicher RC, Kim MS, Kim SH, Strem MD, Melnick RL, et al. The beneficial endophyte Trichoderma hamatum isolate DIS 219b promotes growth and delays the onset of the drought response in Theobroma cacao. Journal of Experimental Botany. 2009;60(11):3279–95. https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp165
91. Khan MIR, Fatma M, Per TS, Anjum NA, Khan NA. Salicylic acid-induced abiotic stress tolerance and underlying mechanisms in plants. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2015;6:462. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080991
92. Illescas M, Pedrero-Méndez A, Pitorini-Bovolini M, Hermosa R, Monte E. Phytohormone Production Profiles in Trichoderma Species and Their Relationship to Wheat Plant Responses to Water Stress. Vol. 10, Pathogens. 2021. p. 991. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080991
93. Gusain DY, Singh U, Sharma A. Enhance activity of stress related enzymes in rice (Oryza sativa L.) induced by plant growth promoting fungi under drought stress. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 2014 May 19;9(10):1430–4. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2014.8575
94. Cornejo-Ríos K, Osorno-Suárez MD, Hernández-León S, Reyes-Santamaría MI, Juárez-Díaz JA, Pérez-España VH, et al. Impact of Trichoderma asperellum on chilling and drought stress in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Vol. 7, Horticulturae. 2021. p. 385. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae7100385
95. Ghorbanpour A, Salimi A, Ghanbary MAT, Pirdashti H, Dehestani A. The effect of Trichoderma harzianum in mitigating low temperature stress in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) plants. Scientia Horticulturae. 2018;230(7):134–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2017.11.028
96. Houlton BZ, Almaraz M, Aneja V, Austin AT, Bai E, Cassman KG, et al. A world of co-benefits: Solving the global nitrogen challenge. Earth’s Future. 2019;7:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019ef001222
97. Banjade D, Khanal D, Regmi P, Shrestha A, Banjade N. Mitigating heat stress in tomato by synergetic effect of Trichoderma and organic manures. Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 2024;7(1):50–61. https://doi.org/10.3126/janr.v7i1.73124
98. Bhai RS, Raj S, Kumar A, Calicut MPO. Influence of soil pH and moisture on the biocontrol potential of Trichoderma harzianum on Phytophthora capsici – black pepper system. Journal of Biological Control. 2010;24(2):153–7. https://doi.org/10.18311/jbc/2010/3600
99. Zin NA, Badaluddin NA. Biological functions of Trichoderma spp. for agriculture applications. Annals of Agricultural Sciences. 2020;65(2):168–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aoas.2020.09.003
100. Malathi P, Sabitha Doraisamy SD. Effect of temperature on growth and antagonistic activity of Trichoderma spp. against Macrophomina phaseolina. Journal of Biological Control. 2003;17(2):153–159. https://doi.org/10.18311/jbc/2003/3973
101. Maurya MK, Srivastava M. Effect of various pH levels on the growth and sporulation of Trichoderma viride isolates and assessing their antagonistic activity against soil-borne pathogens. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology. 2024;18(November):2516–27. https://doi.org/10.22207/JPAM.18.4.23
102. Inam-Ul-Haq M, Javed N, Khan MA, Jaskani MJ, Khan MM, Khan HU, et al. Role of temperature, moisture and Trichoderma species on the survival of Fusarium oxysporum ciceri in the rainfed areas of Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Botany. 2009;41(4):1965–74. https://mail.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/41(4)/PJB41(4)1965.pdf
103. Nadeem A, Hussain S, Akbar A, Ahmad Z, Tariq M, Huzaifa M. Effect of different levels of soil moisture and Trichoderma viride in controlling black scurf of potato. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture. 1991;38(1):40–5. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2022/38.1.40.45
104. Ren L, Lv J, Zhang F, Dou B, Li L, Wang Y, et al. Integrated fertilization with organic manure and Trichoderma enhances wheat productivity and soil nutrient availability. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2025;16(October):1–14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2025.1687216
105. Hoitink HAJ, Boehm M. Biocontrol Within the Context of Soil Microbial Communities: A Substrate-Dependent Phenomenon. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 1999 Feb 1;37:427–46. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.37.1.427
106. Tucci M, Ruocco M, De Masi L, De Palma M, Lorito M. The beneficial effect of Trichoderma spp. on tomato is modulated by the plant genotype. Molecular Plant Pathology. 2011;12(4):341–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1364-3703.2010.00674.x
107. Ahmed M, Ali A, Shaheen I. Efficacy of some biological control treatments on grey mold disease (Botrytis cinerea) of strawberry fruits. Journal of Plant Protection and Pathology. 2023 Nov 12;14(11):345–51. https://doi.org/10.21608/jppp.2023.242510.1187
108. Druzhinina IS, Seidl-Seiboth V, Herrera-Estrella A, Horwitz BA, Kenerley CM, Monte E, et al. Trichoderma: the genomics of opportunistic success. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2011;9(10):749–59. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2637
109. Brondi MG, Florencio C, Vasconcellos VM, Ribeiro C, Farinas CS. Enhancing the Shelf Life and Stress Tolerance of the Biocontrol Agent Trichoderma harzianum by Encapsulation in Green Matrices of Nanocellulose and Carboxymethyl Cellulose. ACS Agriculture Science and Technology. 2025 Jun 16;5(6):1178–88. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsagscitech.5c00189
110. Kubiak A, Wolna-Maruwka A, Niewiadomska A, Pilarska AA. The Problem of Weed Infestation of Agricultural Plantations vs. the Assumptions of the European Biodiversity Strategy. Vol. 12, Agronomy. 2022. p. 1808. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12081808
111. Poveda J, Eugui D. Combined use of Trichoderma and beneficial bacteria (mainly Bacillus and Pseudomonas): Development of microbial synergistic bio-inoculants in sustainable agriculture. Biological Control. 2022;176:105100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2022.105100
112. Santoyo G, Orozco-Mosqueda M del C, Afridi MS, Mitra D, Valencia-Cantero E, Macías-Rodríguez L. Trichoderma and Bacillus multifunctional allies for plant growth and health in saline soils: recent advances and future challenges. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2024;Volume 15-2024. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1423980
113. Dugassa A, Alemu T, Woldehawariat Y. In-vitro compatibility assay of indigenous Trichoderma and Pseudomonas species and their antagonistic activities against black root rot disease ( Fusarium solani ) of faba bean ( Vicia faba L .). BMC Microbiology. 2021;21(115):1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-021-02181-7
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
